HOW CONTROL OF THE AIR INFLUENCED THE CONDUCT OF OPERATION CORPORATE
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How Control of the Air Influenced the Conduct of Operation Corporate
The Falkland Islands War often referred to as the Falkland War occurred in 1982 over clashing claims to independence regarding a group of islands at the east coast of South America. The tussle was between the United Kingdom and Argentina. The South American country held that it had the authority to dominate the contested islands citing Spanish succession. Argentinian authorities further defended their claim arguing that the islands lie off its coast line, and further contented that Britain used force to dominate the islands in addition to acting contrary to the law.[1] The UK, on the other hand, claimed rights over the islands chiefly via prescription – the idea that it has provided leadership on the battled archipelago effectively since 1833.[2][3] The British held that the people living on the islands, approximately 1800 British descendants, should have the choice to determine their fate and future. The UK also claimed rights over the islands arguing that it played crucial exploration roles and its people were among the first to settle there, although this proclamation has always been countered by Spain who governed the place up to 1811. The contention resulted in a ten-week confrontation starting 2 April.[4] Argentina was the first to show its interest in indulging in a tussle by invading and occupying the islands. Argentina proceeded to attack South Georgia, which prompted the British government to dispatch a naval force to counter the move by Argentinian forces.[5] However, the Argentinian side surrendered on 14 June allowing the British to take dominance over the islands.[6] Nonetheless, this study pays considerable attention to how advancement in air attacks or control of air impacted the activities of the British in the war, often referred to as operation corporate, an opportunity that allowed the Western side to triumph over the South American state.
The essay falls into different key sections, each highlighting information that contribute towards understanding the topic under investigation. It begins with the historical information about the group of islands while showing the first people to identify and settle on the land. It then moves to giving an overview of the battle while identifying some of the key events associated with the confrontation. The paper also discusses the potential impact of airpower in winning wars, and shows how nations that have made steady advancements in this area have the chance of overcoming their rivals. The analysis also compares and contrasts UK’s and Argentina’s airpower prowess, and describes how the UK managed to triumph over the South American country because of its competence in using aircrafts to launch attacks.
Background/Historical Information of the Falklands Islands
The Falklands Islands are found in the South Atlantic Ocean along the Patagonian Shelf. The main islands are approximately 300 miles east of the Patagonian coast and nearly 750 miles from the northern area of the Antarctic Peninsula.[7] The archipelago that comprises of West Falkland, East Falkland, and about 770 other smaller islands measures roughly 4,700 square miles. As an oversea territory of the UK, the islands have internal self-governance structures, the British government is in charge of foreign affairs and defense. The island that has a population of about 3,390 people as of 2016 has a long history.[8] It is believed that whereas the Fuegians may have passed across the islands in prehistoric times, the islands were largely uninhabited when the British first explored the area. The Europeans first explored the region during the 16th century, but there is no agreement on whether early explorers had sighted the islands much earlier. It is believed that John Strong was the first to explore the land while going to Chile and Peru around 1690. The place remained without any person until after mid 1750s when Port Louis was established on the Eastern part of the Island by Louis de Bougainville from France. The establishment of Port Egmont a couple of years later under the guidance of John MacBride increased the population further. The archipelago became strategic for the British during the initial half of the 20th century that established its position to dominate over the islands along sub Antarctic and a portion of the Antarctica. Simmering variations developed between Argentina and the UK during the second half of the 20th century, when the president of Argentina, Juan Peron, claimed sovereignty over the islands. The sovereignty differences escalated during the mid-1960s, after the passage of a regulation advocating for decolonization by the United Nations General Assembly. Diplomatic talks were initiated between the disputing nations in 1990 but never resulted in fruitful outcomes. Today, the archipelago generates revenue through tourism, agricultural, and mining, especially oil exploration.
Overview of the Battle
The British, as already indicated in the previous section, was acting in retaliation to an offensive move by the Argentine forces to invade and capture the Falkland. In reaction, the British government dispatched an amphibious and naval forces to the location. The first phases of the war happened largely at sea between components of the Argentine Air Force and the royal Navy.[9] The invasion by the Argentine side was formed to divert attention from economic and human right concerns at home by intensifying national pride and giving strength to the country’s long-held claims over the islands.[10] After a confrontation between Argentine and British forces on South Georgia Island, forces from Argentina had seized the capital at Port Stanley.[11] After initiating diplomatic tension against the Argentinian government, the UK under the leadership of Minister Margaret Thatcher directed a naval task force to take control of the island. Upon confirming the directives by Thatcher by the House of Commons, a war cabinet was instituted that formulated various groups to indulge in the combat.[12] One of the dominated groups created by the UK side was HMS Hermes that steered air attacks. John Fieldhouse was in charge of the UK side guided the movement of cargo ships and tanks into Argentina, with estimations indicating that a total of 128 ships that served different purposes taking part in the confrontation.[13] The Argentine side dispatched Boeing 707 in courtesy of the Air Force to suppress the progress by the British. The British retaliated by sinking ARA Santa Fe close to South Georgia. Attacks from the British intensified when RAF Vulcan bombers were dispatched. The renewed attacks caused massive destruction of property and resulted in an increasing number of deaths.[14] A number of Argentine aircrafts were destroyed as a result of the war with hundreds of people losing their lives to the incident.[15] Overall, Argentina lost in the war due to what appeared to be the British supremacy, a situation that forced Argentina to give up.
Impact of Airpower
Having airpower advantage in war increases the likelihood of emerging the victor or recording impressive outcome. The approach entails the use of military aviation, strategies, and theories to facilitate aerial combat.[16] Airpower according to the British encompasses intricate operating environments that have been exposed to considerable debates.[17] They perceive airpower as the capacity to produce power from the space and air to manipulate the conduct of people or define the course of action. The practice also entails being able to engage in successful intelligence surveillance. Airpower commenced with the introduction of powered flights at the start of the 20th century.[18] The innovation impacted on warfare significantly because it offered an opportunity to examine the rival and to channel relevant artillery fire on the rival target locations. As a result, many were convinced that a decision in the air was needed before a verdict on the ground could be achieved and won. The initial forms were witnessed during the World War I when aircraft were primarily used in the context of a war for reconnaissance with the initial incidences entailing the use of small firearms between rivalry groups.[19] Airpower became increasingly influential during WWII where in addition to tanks, combatants used aircrafts to launch attacks. Countries that showed prominence in air attacks had a better chance of emerging the victors as opposed to those that relied on land techniques alone.[20] Further evidence reveal that tactical air indulgence had an immense influence on fighters’ morale and emerged to be helpful to those who used the technique. Hence, groups that use airpower during confrontations such as the Falklands War have an increased chance of triumphing against their opponents.
The potential impact of airpower encouraged the UK to deploy the approach during the Falklands war. As a result, the British dispatched various units responsible for air attacks in Argentina. For instance, Britain dispatched No. 656 Squardron Army Air Corps, which was renowned globally for its supreme air power. In addition, the British send its Royal Marines, particularly the 3 CDO Brigade Air Squadron.[21] However, the group dispatched other squadrons to Argentina in the course of the war to counter the resistance. For example, Britain sent various other squadrons that were instrumental in showing its supremacy in the battle. Some of these included the 737 NAS, 800 NAS, 801 NAS, 809 NAS, 815 NAS, 820 NAS, and 824 NAS. However, the British also sent other squadrons attached to the Royal Air Force. For example, those that took active roles in the war against Argentina, included but not restricted to No. 1(F) Squadron, No. 18 Squadron, No. 29 Squadron, No. 39 Squadron, and No. 42 Squadron. Furthermore, the British forces launched other air campaigns against Argentina, which contributed towards suppressing the South American state. For example, Sea Harrier FRS.1, Harrier GR.3, and Vulcan B.2 were responsible for at least 1430, 126, and 5 sorties, respectively, all which resulted in considerable number of deaths.[22] The description illustrates how the British took airpower seriously during its confrontation with Argentina, and the dispatching of different types of aircrafts depicted the country’s supremacy in this approach to war. In addition, the Europeans use of airpower reiterated the importance of this approach to winning combats, something that passes valuable lessons to other groups that may find themselves in a similar condition as the two warring sides.
Comparing and Contrasting the UK and Argentina Airpower
Based on the analysis on the previous section, it is apparent that the airpower of the British was far much superior compared to that of Argentina. The supremacy the British enjoyed must be the reason the group triumphed against its rival. An analysis of the British air power during the Falklands War and comparing that with Argentina airpower indicates that the latter was no match to Britain that had gained much experience in this area from past engagements during WWI and WWII.[23] The analysis already hints on how the UK had different units focusing on air attacks. For example, dispatching the Army Air Corps, Royal Marines, and the Royal Air Force played crucial purposes in placing the Western nation ahead in the tussle. In addition, being able to manage more than ten squadrons belonging to the Royal Air Force suggests that Britain had made significant strides in its air power. In addition to those mention in the previous paragraph, Britain also sent No. 50 Squadron, No. 51 Squadron, No. 55 Squadron, No. 57 Squadron, No. 57 Squadron, and No. 70 Squadron among others. Furthermore, in addition to the air campaigns identified in the previous section, the UK also facilitated others that were instrumental in winning the war. For example, Victor K.2, Nimrod MR.2, and Hercules C.1 that conducted 375, 111, and 50 sorties each were crucial in placing much pressure against the Argentinian side that soon gave in to the escalating pressure. The great planning and advanced aircrafts as depicted by the British reaffirmed the important roles air power plays in such combats, and further reinstated that those that excel in this area have higher probability of emerging the winner.
Even though Argentina had not made significant strides in its airpower at the time it faced the British in the Falklands War, it had forms that helped the fighters to put up considerable resistance. Privratsky informs how the war pitted two capable and contemporary naval and air forces against each other.[24] In deed at the time of the war, the air force of Argentina was deemed the best in the whole of South America. The Falklands War was the first great indulgence by Argentina in more than a century, and served as an opportunity for the country to enter into the limelight as an influential and powerful military power.[25]
Unfortunately, despite commencing the war, the Argentinian side did not have a detailed plan for the subsequent protection of the islands. Some factors impended the position of the Argentine forces, including authoritarian leadership that provided little room to engage key parties into coming up with strategic ideas that would help to put up strong opposition against the British.[26] In addition, the Air Force in Argentina had never contemplated warring against a major super power, and fighters lacked adequate training and equipment to enable them resist the calculative moves by the highly sophisticated Britain side.[27] In addition, some of the aircrafts used by the Argentine forces were not in a good position to counter the rapid attacks by the British. For example, the A-4 Skyhawk jets used by Argentina were in deplorable condition. Besides, the air division of the Argentine Navy was still in the transitioning phase, and those in charge of operations in this area were not as effective as that of the British side. Nonetheless, Argentina relied on its position as an influential player in South America to show its ability to use airpower. The Argentine Air Force, particularly the 1st Air Brigade, used various fighter jets during the war, including the Lockheed C-130 H Hercules, Boeing 707-320C, Fokker F-28-1000C, and Fokker F-27-400M.[28] The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th Air Brigades also used different aircrafts during the engagement, including the English Electric b.62 Canberra, the FMA IA 58A Pucara, the McDonnell Douglas A-4C Skyhawk, and McDonnell Douglas A-4B Skyhawk, respectively.[29] Other than the Argentina’s Air Force that tried to show its dominance in the use of airpower, the Argentina Navy, Argentine Army, Argentine Coast Guard, and the Argentine traffic planes were instrumental in contributing towards air warfare with the objective of safeguarding the interests of Argentina in the war.[30] For example, the Navy used aircrafts such as Aermacchi MB.339A and Dassault Super Etendard among others, which facilitated the fight. The Army, on the other hand, used aircrafts such as Boeing CH-487C Chinhook and Bell UH-1H Iroquois. Nonetheless, claims emerge that whereas the Argentine forces showed their ability and understanding on the effectiveness of air power, the use of rather old-dated forms and lack of superior skills contributed towards their failure in the war.
Airpower Effectiveness before, during, and after the War
Comparing UK’s airpower effectiveness before, during, and after the war provides valuable information on how this impacted on the affairs of the British in the Falklands War. The UK had established its position as a leader in airpower from as early as the First World War when the Royal Air Force was being formed following the amalgamation of the RFC (Royal Flying Corps).[31][32] The focus in this area early enough offered the UK a better chance to improve on this area going forward. At the time the ULK was going to war with Argentina in 1982 it had developed its airpower and was believed to be among the strongest globally. Hence, applying the skills it had gained over the decades was instrumental in showing its dominance in the tussle.[33] The UK did not stop at that and instead borrowed lessons from the war that helped it improve on its airpower. Today, the UK is among the superpowers that have made substantial strides in this area.[34] However, Argentina also borrowed lessons from the incident that helped it institute changes that would improve the nation’s capacity to use airpower to counter attacks.
How UK Airpower Defeated Argentina Airpower and Influenced Result of the War
The British organized their airstrikes in a way that ensured they emerged the winners in the ravaging war. The British forces were calculative in their move by ensuring that they dispatched as many aircrafts as possible for the mission. In addition, the aircrafts were far much superior compared to that of the British.[35] Another crucial factor that helped the British to win is they relied on surveillance information, which provided tips on the best times to attack and where to dispatch bombs.[36] Another factor that made the UK airpower to defeat Argentina was due to organized leadership that encouraged teamwork. The Argentine forces, on the other hand, suffered from poor leadership, which affected coordination and focus.
The influence air power has on winning a war is crucial and may be the main reason behind UK’s victory in the battle. The victory the UK recorded in the war, and which could be attributed to its supremacy in this area reaffirms that airpower is so important in the context of a war where the clashing parties disagree over contentious issues.[37][38] The incident confirms that airpower is essential because it offers the chance to realize air superiority and challenge surface campaigns.[39] In addition, the incident confirms that in nearly the one century since the revolutionary new perspective started to surface on the earth’s surface, air power has served an imperative role in facilitating warfare.[40] Consequently, nations while empowering their military forces should pay considerable attention to building airpower to increase the likelihood that the country would be safe in the event of an attack.
Conclusion
The study reveals how airpower was instrumental in winning the Falklands War between Argentina and the UK. The two countries engaged each other in an attempt to secure ownership over the Falklands Islands that lie along the South Atlantic Ocean. According to the UK authorities, the British have the right to dominate the place because they have offered leadership in the archipelago for many years in addition to being among the early inhabitants in the region. The Argentine side, on the other hand, believed it had the right to take over the islands because they are adjacent to the South American country. However, the failure to reach an amicable agreement resulted in considerable confrontations that lasted several months. Ultimately, Argentina surrendered and allowed the British government to take over the ownership of the Falklands Islands. Each of the warring sides proved that they understand the potential impact of aircrafts in winning the war and indulged forces that would help to indulge the other using air warfare. The war came at a time when fighters had already knew the potential impact of air warfare with much lesson coming from WWI and WWII. However, whereas each warring side in the Falklands war understood the value of aircraft combat, one side in this case (the UK). The analysis reveals that the British had a better chance to win the war because of its significant advancements in airpower. Both the UK and Argentina understood the value of airpower in winning such confrontations but lack of skills and the use of inferior equipment resulted in more causalities on the side of the Argentinians. The win by the UK showed that it had learned valuable lessons from past engagements contrary to Argentina that was engaging in its first ever major war.
The revelation suggests that whereas airpower increases the probability to winning a battle of the magnitude of the Falklands War, effective planning, experience, and quality of the weapons are instrumental in assuring victory. The outcomes pass valuable lessons to countries that learn the significance of enhancing their airpower to be able to counter attacks as it appeared between Argentina and Britain. Besides, the analysis emphasizes the need to train manpower so that they are able to use the skills they learn to counter violations that could result in destruction of property and loss of life. Nonetheless, the recommendation does not advocate for war because such indulgence usually cause inappropriate outcomes, some which take a lot of time to salvage.
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[1] Penn-Barwell, Jowan. “The Falklands War: the Journals of the Fleet’s Medical Officers.” Journal of the Royal Naval Medical Service 103, no. 2 (2017): 78.
[2] Snyder, Alexander, The Falklands Islands War of 1982: A Legal, Diplomatic and Strategic Evaluation. Core, 1989. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/62640168.pdf
[3] McClure, Jason. “The Falklands War: Causes and Lessons.” Strategic Insights 3, no. 11 (2004): 6.
[4] Bellot, Andrea. “The Malvinas/Falklands War (1982): Pacific Solutions for an Atlantic Conflict.” Coolabah 10, (2013): 25.
[5] Arquilla, John, and Maria Rasmussen. “The Origins of the South Atlantic War.” Journal of Latin American Studies 33, (2001): 744.
[6] Paris, Michael. “Air Power and Imperial Defense.” Journal of Contemporary History 24, no. 2 (1989): 215.
[7] Clarke, Harold, William Mishler and Paul Whiteley. “Recapturing the Falklands: Models of Conservative Popularity, 1979-83.” British Journal of Political Science 20, (1990): 63-81.
[8] BBC News, The Falklands War: 40 Years on. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KS4mTxlsYSM
[9] Timeline – World History Documentaries, Why did the Falklands War Happen? | The Untold Story| Timeline. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V887sYcmIAc
[10] The Guardian, The Falklands War: How a British Taskforce Achieved the Impossible. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VCBTCtnMiyM
[11] Solly, Melian, A Brief History of the Falklands War. Smithsonian, 2020. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/brief-history-falklands-war-180976349/
[12] Harmes, Michael. “A Creature not Quite of this World: Adaptations of Margaret Thatcher on 1980s British Television.” Journal of Popular Television 3, 1 (2013): 57.
[13] IWM, A Short History of the Falklands Conflict. IWM, 2022. https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/a-short-history-of-the-falklands-conflict
[14] King and Generals, Falklands War 1982 Documentary. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3e8Ms0pbPcw
[15] Sanders, David, Hugh Ward, David Marsh and Tony Fletcher. ‘Government Popularity and the Falklands War: A Re-assessment. British Journal of Political Science 17, no. 2 (1987): 281–313.
[16] Histograph, The True Story of the Invasion of the Falklands. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BUYp3Wqz00A
[17] Hickman, Kennedy. Falklands War: Conflict in the South Atlantic. ThoughtCo., 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/the-falklands-war-an-overview-2360852#:~:text=Fought%20in%201982%2C%20the%20Falklands,the%20islands%20two%20days%20later.
[18] Imperial War Museums, Falklands Conflict at Sea | How the British Task Force Took Control of the South Atlantic. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1nENiXSrJY
[19] Kak, Kapil. “A Century of Air Power; Lessons and Pointers.” Strategic Analysis:
A Monthly Journal of the IDSA 24, no. 12 (2001): https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/olj/sa/sa_mar01kak01.html
[20] Gray, Colin. The Airpower Advantage in Future Warfare: The Need for Strategy (Mointgomery: Maxwell Air Force Base, 2007) 18
[21] Schmitt, Michael and Leslie Green. “The Falklands Crisis and the Laws of War.” International Law Studies 70, no. 2 (1985): 213.
[22] F-16.net, AIM-9 Sidewinder. F-16.net, 2022. https://www.f-16.net/f-16_armament_article1.html
[23] Forces News, My Secret Falklands War: When Britain’s Military Took to the Airwaves. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0f5mbM2pZB4
[24] Privratsky, Kenneth. Logistics in the Falklands War (Croydon: Pen & Sword, 2014) 34.
[25] The Amir Historian, Falklands War from Argentina’s Perspective. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0RAeytjXVE
[26] Clegg, Peter and Kate Matheson. “Falklands Islands – 40 Years on.” The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 111, no. 1 (2022): 53.
[27] Laucirica, Jorge. “Lessons from Failure: The Falklands/Malvinas Conflict.” Seton Hall Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations 3, (2000): 87.
[28] Westenhoff, Charles. Military Air Power (Islamabad: Air University Press, 1990) 40.
[29] Dorman, Andrew, Michael Kandiah and Gillian Staerck. The Falklands War (London: Centre for Contemporary British History, 2005) 40.
[30] Hastings, Max and Simon Jenkins. The Battle for the Falklands (London: Pan, 2010) 39
[31] Henry, Etienne. “The Falklands/Malvinas War -1982.” SSRN Electronic Journal 2, (2017): 7.
[32] Force News, Falklands War: What Happened in 1982. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7n4AvI5Rb4o
[33] Mulvaney, Kieran, The Improbable Falklands War Still Resonates Decades Later. National Geographic, 2022. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/falklands-war-history-and-legacy
[34] Anderson, Duncan. The Falklands War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) 61
[35] Corum, James, Argentine Airpower in the Falklands War: An Operational View.” Air and Space Power Journal 2, no. 22 (2002): 8.
[36] Liffiton, Alexander, The Falklands War: Differing Causes of Conflict. E-International Relations, 2016. https://www.e-ir.info/2016/02/06/the-falklands-war-differing-causes-of-conflict/
[37] Smith, Gordon. Battle Atlas of the Falklands War 1982 by Land, Sea and Air (New York: Naval-History, 2006) 87.
[38] Freedman, Lawrence. The Official History of the Falklands, Vol 2: The 1982 Falklands War and it’s Aftermath (Cabinet Office Series of Official Histories) (London: Routledge, 2005) 102.
[39] Chant, Christopher. Air War in the Falklands 1982 (London: Osprey Publishing, 1996) 22.
[40] Leclerc-Desjardins, Yoann, How the Falklands Affected British National Power. CFC, 2018. https://www.cfc.forces.gc.ca/259/290/405/305/leclerc.pdf